Wing Chun Kuen and the Secret Societies

By Rene Ritchie, Robert Chu and Hendrik Santo

The hui (wui, societies) encompassed groups organized for a range of goals, from mutual-aid and protection, to criminal enterprise and predation, to cult expansion and rebellious sedition. They were distinguished by their drawing of members with different surnames, lack of regard for traditional hierarchies, and their practice of initiation involving blood-oath.

The Evolution of the Societies

The origins of the hui are found in equal parts fact and fiction. Historically, elements of the societies can be traced as far back as the Tang dynasty when local villages formed yishi (associations of adopted social groups formed from above) for the pooling of funds (for the purchase of equipment and livestock, and the paying of funerals and child birth related expenses).

The characteristic of jiebai xiongdi (sworn brotherhoods) of differing surnames is deeply embedded in the culture due to popular stories such as Sanguo Yanyi (Romance of the Three Kingdoms) and Shuihuzhuan (Outlaws of the Marsh). During the early-Qing period, they gained prominence due to the xiedou (collective violence), or the internecine feuds between shi (lineages) that spread from Fujian. When smaller lineages faced the threat of larger lineages, they were forced to band together into huizu (ancestral associations). At the same time, the destruction wrought during the dynastic transition and the following shifts in population densities led many youths to migrate in search of economic opportunity. For survival and protection, these youths banded together into non-elite groups of differing surnames, in stark contrast to the hierarchies of age and divisions of wealth and lineage that had so characterized earlier societies.

The blood-oath aspect of the societies is said to trace back even further. Accounts exist from the time of the Warring States (475-221 BC) when the passing from feudal to proto-bureaucratic society led to ritualized violence, where a climate idealizing heroic honor and martial prowess, mired in inter-state, inter-lineage, and inter-personal feuding, combined with the breaking down of old institutions, led men to ally themselves into elite groups through the taking of blood-oaths.

Early on, the Qing cracked down on the societies. By 1646, membership in a blood-oath society was made punishable by a flogging of 100 lashes. By 1661, belonging to a non-blood oath society was punishable by the lash, and membership in the blood-oath society was punishable by death. This crack down led to considerable resentment among the societies and, following the end of dynastic transition in 1683 and the driving of the anti-Qing resistance underground, elements of sedition began to surface. By the turn of the 18th century, societies were already being organized in Taiwan to jushi (rise-up).

Over the next decade, the rebellious brotherhoods, mutual aid organizations, bandit groups, pyramid-structured financial enterprises, cults, and other forms of the societies continued to evolve. And, for the first time, these societies began to gain formal names. In 1728, the Fumuhui (Father & Mother Society) formed in Zhuluo, Fujian. In 1735 the Tiechihui (Iron Ruler Society) formed in Ninghua, Fujian. These new societies, and others, paved the way for the most far reaching of them all - the Tiandihui (Tien Dei Wui, Heaven & Earth Society), later and more expansively known as the Hongmen (Hung Mun, Vast Gate).

The Coming of the Heaven & Earth Society

The Tiandihui began when Zheng Kai (known primarily as Ti Xi but with numerous aliases including Monk Wan, Monk Hong Er, etc.), Li Amin (a boxing master), Zhu Dingyuan, and Tao Yuan left their homes in Zhangpu, Fujian to seek better lives in Sichuan. There, they joined a group of "monks" led by Ma Jiulong who practiced magic and exorcism. The group did not fair well, however, and Ti Xi soon went to Guangdong and organized a group of followers in Huizhou. In 1761, Ti Xi returned home to Fujian and took up residence in the Guanyinting (Goddess of Mercy Pavillion) and transformed his group of followers into the society known as Tiandihui.

By 1766, the Tiandihui had spread through Zhangpu and Pinghe counties, and by 1767, one of the early members, Lu Mao, created a brotherhood for what may have been the first Tiandihui uprising. Their plan was to engage in theft (robbing storehouses, treasuries, and homes of the well do to) in order to raise money for their rebellious activities. In 1768, the time finally came for their uprising and they attacked the western gate of the county seat, but were easily defeated by the local guard.

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By Rene Ritchie, Robert Chu and Hendrik Santo The hui (wui, societies) encompassed groups organized for a range of goals, from mutual-aid and protection, to criminal enterprise and predation, to cult expansion and rebellious sedition. They were distinguished by their drawing of members with different surnames, lack of regard for traditional hierarchies, and their practice of initiation involving blood-oath. The Evolution of the Societies The origins of the hui are found in equal parts fact and fiction. Historically, elements of the societies can be traced as far back as the Tang dynasty when local villages formed yishi (associations of adopted social groups formed from above) for the pooling of funds (for the purchase of equipment and livestock, and the paying of funerals and child birth related expenses). The characteristic of jiebai xiongdi (sworn brotherhoods) of differing surnames is deeply embedded in the culture due to popular stories such as Sanguo Yanyi (Romance of the Three Kingdoms) and Shuihuzhuan (Outlaws of the Marsh). During the early-Qing period, they gained prominence due to the xiedou (collective violence), or the internecine feuds between shi (lineages) that spread from Fujian. When smaller lineages faced the threat of larger lineages, they were forced to band together into huizu (ancestral associations). At the same time, the destruction wrought during the dynastic transition and the following shifts in population densities led many youths to migrate in search of economic opportunity. For survival and protection, these youths banded together into non-elite groups of differing surnames, in stark contrast to the hierarchies of age and divisions of wealth and lineage that had so characterized earlier societies. The blood-oath aspect of the societies is said to trace back even further. Accounts exist from the time of the Warring States (475-221 BC) when the passing from feudal to proto-bureaucratic society led to ritualized violence, where a climate idealizing heroic honor and martial prowess, mired in inter-state, inter-lineage, and inter-personal feuding, combined with the breaking down of old institutions, led men to ally themselves into elite groups through the taking of blood-oaths. Early on, the Qing cracked down on the societies. By 1646, membership in a blood-oath society was made punishable by a flogging of 100 lashes. By 1661, belonging to a non-blood oath society was punishable by the lash, and membership in the blood-oath society was punishable by death. This crack down led to considerable resentment among the societies and, following the end of dynastic transition in 1683 and the driving of the anti-Qing resistance underground, elements of sedition began to surface. By the turn of the 18th century, societies were already being organized in Taiwan to jushi (rise-up). Over the next decade, the rebellious brotherhoods, mutual aid organizations, bandit groups, pyramid-structured financial enterprises, cults, and other forms of the societies continued to evolve. And, for the first time, these societies began to gain formal names. In 1728, the Fumuhui (Father & Mother Society) formed in Zhuluo, Fujian. In 1735 the Tiechihui (Iron Ruler Society) formed in Ninghua, Fujian. These new societies, and others, paved the way for the most far reaching of them all - the Tiandihui (Tien Dei Wui, Heaven & Earth Society), later and more expansively known as the Hongmen (Hung Mun, Vast Gate). The Coming of the Heaven & Earth Society The Tiandihui began when Zheng Kai (known primarily as Ti Xi but with numerous aliases including Monk Wan, Monk Hong Er, etc.), Li Amin (a boxing master), Zhu Dingyuan, and Tao Yuan left their homes in Zhangpu, Fujian to seek better lives in Sichuan. There, they joined a group of "monks" led by Ma Jiulong who practiced magic and exorcism. The group did not fair well, however, and Ti Xi soon went to Guangdong and organized a group of followers in Huizhou. In 1761, Ti Xi returned home to Fujian and took up residence in the Guanyinting (Goddess of Mercy Pavillion) and transformed his group of followers into the society known as Tiandihui. By 1766, the Tiandihui had spread through Zhangpu and Pinghe counties, and by 1767, one of the early members, Lu Mao, created a brotherhood for what may have been the first Tiandihui uprising. Their plan was to engage in theft (robbing storehouses, treasuries, and homes of the well do to) in order to raise money for their rebellious activities. In 1768, the time finally came for their uprising and they attacked the western gate of the county seat, but were easily defeated by the local guard.